What Management Practice Allows For Animal Traceability?

• Periodical List
• Front Psychol
• PMC8281310

Forepart Psychol. 2021; 12: 675554.

Study on Consumer Preference for Traceable Pork With Animal Welfare Aspect

Mo Chen

^aneSchoolhouse of Economics and Direction, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing, China

Enhua Hu

ⁱSchool of Economic science and Management, Nanjing University of Helmsmanship and Astronautics, Nanjing, China

Lin Lin Kuen

²Department of Business organization Administration, Cheng Shiu Academy, Kaohsiung, Taiwan

Linhai Wu

^threeResearch Found for Nutrient Prophylactic Risk Management, School of Business, Jiangnan Academy, Wuxi, China

Received 2021 Mar 3; Accepted 2021 Jun 2.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the respective author.

Abstract

We adamant consumer preferences for traceable pork attributes in 328 consumers in Wuxi City, Jiangsu Province, Mainland china, based on a traceable pork aspect organisation composed of traceability, animate being welfare, place of origin, and toll attributes. Preference was studied using a Choice Experiment and Bayesian inference assay. Results showed that the marginal utility of health welfare was lower than that of high-level traceability information and similar to that of place of origin just was higher than that of centre-level traceability information. A complementary relationship existed betwixt dietary animate being welfare and high-level traceability information and betwixt health welfare and not-indigenous production. A exchange relationship existed between health welfare and indigenous product and between environmental animal welfare and not-indigenous product. The marginal utilities of wellness welfare and dietary welfare were college than those of all price levels, and consumers accept a higher price as a result of increased production costs due to the inclusion of animal welfare data. Due to the harsh realities of COVID-19, Cathay has recently approved the fauna welfare attribute to be integrated into traceability marketplace systems of new creature-derived nutrient. The government should encourage manufacturers to produce various traceable animal-derived nutrient not only to protect creature welfare and promote the construction of an ecological civilization, simply as well to develop new animal-derived food markets to satisfy different levels of consumer need.

Keywords: traceable pork, animal welfare, origin, food prophylactic, bayesian inference

Introduction

Since March 2020, COVID-19 has apace spread worldwide, resulting in incalculable losses to humans. The COVID-19 pandemic has too triggered global reflection on animate being welfare protection, including the consumption of wild animals as food, and more than deeply, the impact of fauna health on human health. For example, co-ordinate to the Ministry building of Agronomics and Rural Affairs of the People'southward Republic of People's republic of china, since the initial outbreak of African Swine Fever (ASF) in August 2018 to January 2020, Communist china has reported 162 outbreaks and culled nearly 1.2 one thousand thousand infected pigs, resulting in huge economic losses to the pork industry. However, although the regime has taken strict action against ASF prevention, ASF-infected pork is still present in the market, thus agonizing normal market gild and threatening pork quality and rubber, and consequently human health and safety. For example, the Public Security Bureau of Rui'an, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, as disclosed in the Top Ten Food Offense Cases in the First Half of 2019 issued by the Zhejiang Provincial Public Security Section, investigated and uncovered the production and sale of nutrient that did not see safety standards, leading to the seizure of nearly 7 tons of ASF-infected pork and an illegal turn a profit of more than two million yuan.¹ Although ASF is non a zoonotic disease, nor is information technology considered infectious or harmful to humans, ASF-infected pork in the market has once again aroused widespread public business virtually pork rubber issues. Beltrán-Alcrudo et al. (2017) showed that the emergence and spread of ASF is largely caused by not-standard behavior of stakeholders in the pork supply chain organisation, too as poor environment and management in grunter farming, so that the physical well-beingness of pigs cannot exist guaranteed. For case, swill, domestic waste matter, and other pollutants are often used illegally to feed pigs and the farming surroundings is frequently unhygienic, resulting in affliction and cross-infection due to bacterial proliferation.

In 1976, the American researcher Hughes introduced the concept of animal welfare for the first time. He divers farm animal welfare as a state of complete mental and physical health, where the animal is in harmony with its environment, advocating that humans should consider creature welfare while using animals humanely (Ren, 2006). Gavinelli et al. (2007) pointed out that animal-derived food condom will be impacted if basic animal welfare is neglected or cannot be guaranteed, which poses long-term potential threats to human health through the food chain. Iannetti et al. (2019) showed that poor animal welfare tin can lead to an increase in the probability of animate being diseases and their potential transmission to humans. Among infectious diseases that threaten human being health, there are more than 200 infectious zoonoses. Grace et al. (2012) divers zoonosis equally an infectious affliction transmissible amidst animals and humans. Grace et al. (2011) also reported that approximately xx% of human being diseases and deaths in less adult areas are caused past zoonoses. Equally of 2019, an average of 12 million people worldwide die from zoonoses each yr (Li et al., 2019). Iannetti et al. (2019) establish that zoonoses take accounted for more than lxx% of emerging infectious diseases in the past 30 years. The European Nutrient Safety Authority (ESFA) (2019) emphasized that the susceptibility of animal-derived food to disease, including zoonoses, volition increase if fauna welfare cannot exist guaranteed. Therefore, many European and American countries have established clear regulations regarding the protection of animal welfare in the process of farming, slaughter, and transportation from the perspective of nutrient safe and social ethics. Now, the international customs has adopted the bones definition given past the British Farm Animal Welfare Council (FAWC). The Farm Animal Welfare Council: V Freedoms (2009) holds that animals should exist entitled to v freedoms: i.e., liberty from hunger and thirst by ready access to fresh water and a diet to maintain full health and vigor (i.e., dietary welfare); freedom from discomfort by providing an advisable environment including shelter and a comfortable resting area (i.e., environmental welfare); freedom from hurting, injury, and affliction by prevention or rapid diagnosis and treatment (i.e., health welfare); freedom to perform normal behavior by providing sufficient space, proper facilities, and adequate company of the animate being'south own kind (i.east., behavioral welfare); and freedom from fear and distress past ensuring weather and treatments that avoid mental suffering (i.e., mental welfare). The World Health Organization has further stated that if animals are good for you, comfortable, fed, safe, able to express their nature freely, and gratuitous from pain, fearfulness, and pressure, and then the basic requirements of creature welfare have been met (Part International Des Epizooties (OIE), 2015). All the same, there is almost no legislation safeguarding animal welfare in Cathay, and consumers know very little about fauna welfare, which is the primary cause of livestock meat quality and safety problems in China (Wang and Gu, 2016).

Many studies have shown that food traceability systems with both ex ante quality balls (too known as ex ante warning) and ex post traceability can assistance eliminate data asymmetry betwixt producers and consumers, prevent nutrient safety issues, and reduce the impact of nutrient safety incidents through traceability (Opara, 2003; Kher et al., 2013; Hou et al., 2019). Therefore, if an animal welfare information attribute with the function of ex ante quality assurance is added to pork traceability systems, it will aid guide farmers to safeguard pig welfare in the farming process and prevent swine fever and other safety incidents, thereby achieving ex ante quality assurance (Alfnes et al., 2018). Furthermore, once an incident like to ASF-infected pork entering the market occurs, pork that fails the required standard can be recalled in a timely mode, and those responsible can be held accountable, thereby achieving ex post traceability. Notwithstanding, calculation an creature welfare information aspect to a pork traceability organisation will inevitably increment the production costs of pork (Weerd and Solar day, 2009), which will certainly exist reflected in market prices. Therefore, whether consumers are willing to pay a sure premium for traceable pork with an beast welfare data aspect volition affect the willingness of producers to produce traceable pork with this aspect. As illustrated by the literature review below, consumers in unlike countries are willing to pay a certain premium for animal welfare at different levels. Notwithstanding, similar research remains scarce in People's republic of china. Based on the actual market situation in China, we carried out a example study on consumers in Wuxi City, Jiangsu Province, which incorporated an animal welfare information attribute into a traceable pork attribute organization as ex ante quality assurance information. Thus, nosotros built a traceable pork attribute system that integrated traceability information, animal welfare, place of origin, and toll attributes. In add-on, a Choice Experiment was employed to collect experimental information and Bayesian inference was used for information analysis to study the perceptions and preferences of consumers for traceable pork with the animal welfare information attribute. This provides a theoretical basis for the structure of a pork traceability system that includes an beast welfare attribute in People's republic of china. Ultimately, it is hoped that this volition enhance pork traceability systems to improve pork safety and ensure food safe and consumer wellness in People's republic of china.

Literature Review

As the food supply chain becomes increasingly circuitous, insufficient consumer knowledge on food prophylactic information attributes can have a negative impact on the feedback loop of the supply chain (Reardon and Timmer, 2012). Regattieri et al. (2007) showed that food traceability systems provide consumers with quality and safety information and are an essential tool to prevent food safety risks. Based on the theory of consumer need put forward by Lancaster (1996), the value of a commodity is created by the combination of its attributes. Therefore, the utility of consumers' consumption of food can exist regarded as coming from a combination of attributes, including traceability. Food attributes tin be divided into three categories, i.e., search, experience, and trust attributes (Wu et al., 2015a). Hobbs (2004) stated that a food traceability system is designed to provide two basic functions, i.e., ex dues quality assurance and ex post traceability. The main role of ex post traceability is that sub-standard nutrient can be effectively recalled through the traceability system (Ubilava and Foster, 2009). Ex ante quality assurance presents consumers with trust attributes, such as food quality and safe, place of origin, and animal welfare, in the grade of a label. This transforms the trust aspect of food safety into a search aspect, thereby reducing the time to search for desirable traceable foods (Golan et al., 2003) and playing a pre-alert role (Wu et al., 2015a). Various studies have shown that ex dues quality balls plays a far greater function than ex mail service traceability in eliminating information asymmetry (Hobbs, 2004; Loebnitz and Loose, 2015).

Considerable research has been conducted on consumer preference for food traceability data with the function of ex post traceability. Loureiro and Umberger, 2007 adopted a Choice Experiment to study the preference of American consumers for condom attributes of meat products and found that such consumers pay more than attention to products with food safety labels issued by the USDA, which testify that the meat is fresh and traceable, compared to products without safety labels. Abidoye et al. (2011) adopted the Choice-Based Conjoint approach to study American consumer preference for quality attributes of beef and concluded that such consumers are most concerned with and willing to pay a certain premium for traceability data. Bai et al. (2013) used the same method to study Chinese consumer preference for traceable milk and found that urban consumers prefer milk with traceability information. Using a Real Pick Experiment (i.e., real substitution of appurtenances and money), Wu et al. (2015b) found that Chinese consumers take significantly heterogeneous preferences for traceable pork, and they are willing to pay a sure premium for traceability data on slaughter, processing, distribution, and sales. Furthermore, based on a Option Experiment, Yin et al. (2017) showed that Chinese consumers adopt the traceability information attribute in the purchase of baby milk, for which they are willing to pay a certain premium. Wu et al. (2018) also studied the willingness of Chinese consumers to pay for pork with unlike levels of traceability information, confirming that consumers have the highest willingness to pay for complete traceability data that covers farming, slaughter, processing, distribution, and sales. Based on an Experimental Auction, Nguyen et al. (2018) studied Vietnamese consumers' willingness to pay for rice and constitute that the premium paid past consumers for rice gradually increased from 9% to 33% when the certified sustainably produced rice independent traceability information.

Scholars accept also studied consumer preferences for place of origin and fauna welfare attributes with the function of ex dues quality assurance. In terms of the identify of origin attribute, Chang et al. (2013) found that American consumers prefer ethnic ground beef to ground beef from different origins. Lim et al. (2014) reported that American consumers have greater trust in the safety of domestic beef than imported beef and take a college willingness to pay for beef with a domestic production label. In terms of the animal welfare attribute, Yuta et al. (2018) showed that almost 90% of Japanese consumers are willing to pay a certain premium for beef with an animal welfare label. Markova-Nenova and Wätzold (2018) found that High german consumers have a college willingness to pay for milk with an animal welfare aspect. Lemos Teixeira et al. (2018) found that consumers in Brazil and Chile prefer eggs provided by farms that tin guarantee animal welfare in terms of favorable diet, living weather condition, and health. Merlino et al. (2018) confirmed that Italian consumers strongly consider animal welfare factors, second only to price factors, when purchasing beef. Espana et al. (2018) reported that 78% of American consumers believe that a fair and objective third party is required to ensure the reliability of animal welfare certification, and they are willing to pay a 32% premium for eggs under reliable fauna welfare certification. Lai et al. (2018) also found that Chinese consumers in economically prosperous cities prefer pork with creature welfare labels, and are willing to pay a premium for them, but at a lower level than for food safe attributes.

The penetration rate of traceable pork in China is still depression and the different types of traceable pork studied in this paper do not really exist in the market (i.eastward., a virtual traceable pork profile). This makes it hard to obtain actual buy data on consumers' marketplace beliefs. Thus, consumers must exist asked directly almost their stated preferences and willingness to pay for traceable pork. Several basic methods can be practical to report stated preference, including Choice Experiment, Contingent Valuation, and Conjoint Analysis. Co-ordinate to Louviere et al. (2010), a Choice Experiment tin be conducted with random utility theory as a starting bespeak and have a mature practical basis, and thus has become a central tool to study consumer preferences.

In summary, various studies accept investigated consumer preferences and accept consistently reported that consumers more often than not pay attending to traceability, animal welfare, and identify of origin. However, well-nigh previous studies on fauna welfare take been conducted in developed countries, with studies on Chinese consumers and the incorporation of animal welfare into traceability systems with ex ante quality assurance remaining relatively deficient. Moreover, near earlier studies take used latent class modeling analysis tools to highlight grouping differences in consumers, while neglecting differences in consumers' individual preferences for different attributes. In the nowadays study, we investigated the perceptions and preferences of consumers in Wuxi, Jiangsu Province, Prc, for an animal welfare aspect of traceable pork in a system composed of traceability, animal welfare, place of origin, and price attributes using a Choice Experiment and Bayesian inference analysis. Moreover, beast welfare and identify of origin were classified as ex ante quality assurance attributes and traceability information was classified equally an ex mail service traceability aspect co-ordinate to Hobbs (2004). The results of this study should provide guidelines for the development and popularization of the traceable pork system that incorporates animal welfare in Communist china.

Experimental Design and Investigation

Based on the supposition that traceable pork can be regarded every bit a combination of traceability data, creature welfare, identify of origin, and cost attributes co-ordinate to the utility theory proposed by Lancaster (1996), the experiment was designed and conducted equally follows.

Traceable Pork Attribute Setting

As the most oft consumed meat in China, pork also has the about quality and safety incidents (Wu et al., 2015c). In 2018, pork output and consumption in cathay amounted to 54.04 and 55.398 million tons, respectively, accounting for 47.82% and 49.25% of the world's full pork output and consumption, respectively. Moreover, traceable pork is 1 of the primeval traceable food types in the Chinese market. Therefore, we investigated traceable pork equally a case study in this paper. Given the different consumer preferences for different parts of traceable pork of the aforementioned variety, pork hindquarters, a pork part widely consumed in China (Wang et al., 2011), were selected as the experimental product to eliminate the possible impact of non-intrinsic factors on research conclusions. For simplicity, traceable pork hindquarters are referred to as traceable pork hereinafter. The specific attribute settings are shown in Table one.

Table 1

Attributes and levels of traceable pork.

Category	Attribute	Level and definition
ex mail service traceability	1. Traceability information	1. Information about farming, slaughter, and sales (HITRACE) 2. Information about farming and slaughter (METRACE) 3. Information most farming (LOTRACE) 4. No traceability information (NOTRACE)
ex ante quality balls	2. Beast welfare	1. Dietary welfare (PHYSICAL) 2. Environmental welfare (ENVIR) three. Health welfare (Wellness) 4. No fauna welfare (NOWELFARE)
	3. Origin	1. Indigenous (LOCORIGIN) 2. Non-indigenous (OTHORIGIN) 3. NOORIGIN
	4. Price	1.14 yuan/500 one thousand (PRICE1) ii. 15.iv yuan/500 k (PRICE2) three. 16.eight yuan/500 yard (PRICE3) 4. 18.2 yuan/500 g (PRICE4)

First, the traceability information attributes and levels were set equally follows. Wu et al. (2015c) plant that food condom issues in Prc, including those of pork, are predominantly caused by human factors, such as improper beliefs, failure to implement or strictly implement existing technical specifications and standard systems for nutrient, and other violations related to production and concern. From the perspective of the whole pork supply concatenation in Communist china, and based on Wang et al. (2017), feed suppliers, farmers, butchers, dealers, and retailers are of import stakeholders in the pork supply concatenation organisation, and their behaviors directly affect pork quality and safety. Due to data asymmetry on pork prophylactic attributes, information technology is difficult for consumers to accept full access to all relevant information, which thus leads to marketplace failure (Wu et al., 2017). Therefore, information on traceable pork was ready to cover 3 central links, i.east., farming, slaughter and processing, and distribution and sales. Moreover, the traceability information was displayed graphically to facilitate consumer understanding (Effigy 1). Specifically, the traceability information attributes were designed with reference to the four levels shown in Table i.

Schematic of traceability data in each link of the traceable pork supply chain.

2nd, fauna welfare was introduced as an ex ante quality balls attribute. Inspired by the Farm Animal Welfare Quango: Five Freedoms (2009), iii forms of animal welfare, i.e., dietary, environmental, and health welfare, were selected equally attribute levels. In the design of the study questionnaire, the specific connotations of the 3 kinds of animal welfare were described clearly, and the following items were established appropriately, i.e., "how important is providing pigs with ready access to a satisfactory diet"; "how of import is providing pigs with a well-ventilated hole that allows comfortable residuum and activeness"; "how important is providing pigs with access to immediate handling when sick", to ensure that surveyed consumers (hereinafter referred to as participants) had a direct perception of animate being welfare. Five response options were included, i.e., "very unimportant", "unimportant", "neither important nor unimportant", "important", and "very important".

3rd, the place of origin aspect was introduced into the traceable pork aspect system and separately listed in the label as an ex ante quality assurance attribute. Strictly speaking, the farming information in the traceability attribute established in this paper contains information on place of origin. However, Zhong and Wu (2018) showed that the calibration of grunter farming in China is still minor at present and decentralized small-scale farming prevails, and thus the existing traceability system is unable to trace every modest grunter farmer in the farming link. Although information technology is hard for the place of origin data, equally an independent attribute, to trace specific pig farmers, it tin reflect the characteristics of the region where pocket-sized-scale pig farmers are located. Moreover, it is necessary to include identify of origin every bit an independent aspect of traceable pork in the context of Red china. Specifically, nutrient safety in Cathay is often associated with region and is closely related to regional natural environments (east.thousand., soil, water, and temper) and social integrity.² For example, heavy metal pollution in rice exhibits regional distribution in Red china (Wu et al., 2014). Co-ordinate to the Chinese definition, the place of origin of products includes regional space and geographical indication. Therefore, according to Wu et al. (2017), place of origin was considered an contained attribute of traceable pork in this study³ to provide consumers with producer-identifying data and thus with ex ante warning (Lim et al., 2014). In this newspaper, "LOCORIGIN" is defined equally pork produced in Wuxi, where the experiment was conducted; "OTHORIGIN" is divers equally pork produced in Lu'an City, Anhui Province, which is normally available in the Wuxi market according to our local survey; and "NOORIGIN" is divers equally pork without a specified place of origin. The place of origin attribute was labeled separately, every bit shown in Effigy 2.

Experimental sample characterization of traceable pork hindquarters.

Fourth, properly setting the price of traceable pork profiles with dissimilar attributes and aspect levels is critical for Selection Experiments as all traceable pork products set up in this paper practice not exist in the actual market place. As the site of the experiment and the selection of participants were from downtown Wuxi, consistent with those in Wu et al. (2018), and the time interval between these experiments was short, the price of pork set by Wu et al. (2018) was adopted here (run into Table 2 for specific toll levels).

Table 2

Demographics of participants.

Demographic	Category	Sample size (person)	Proportion (%)
Gender	Male	155	47.26
	Female person	173	52.74
Age	18–25 years erstwhile	155	47.26
	26–35 years old	89	27.xiii
	36–45 years onetime	29	8.84
	46–55 years old	33	10.06
	56–65 years one-time	eighteen	five.49
	66–72 years one-time	four	1.22
Marital condition	Married	144	43.xc
	Unmarried	184	56.10
Education background	Junior high school and below	39	xi.89
	Senior high schoolhouse (including vocational loftier schoolhouse)	47	14.33
	Junior college (including higher vocational college)	64	19.51
	Bachelor's degree	143	43.threescore
	Chief's degree or above	35	10.67
Children under 18 years one-time in the family unit	North	219	66.77
	Y	109	33.23
Pregnant or breast-feeding women in the family	N	308	93.90
	Y	twenty	6.10
Wellness status	Very good	126	38.41
	Good	153	46.65
	Moderate	48	14.63
	Poor	1	0.31
	Very poor	0	0
Personal almanac income	36 000 yuan and below	128	39.02
	36 000–50 000 yuan	64	nineteen.51
	50 000–80 000 yuan	51	15.55
	fourscore 000–100 000 yuan	38	11.59
	Above 100 000 yuan	47	14.33
Almanac household income	50 000 yuan and below	33	10.06
	50 000–80 000 yuan	56	17.08
	80 000–100 000 yuan	62	18.90
	100 000–150 000 yuan	53	16.16
	Higher up 150 000 yuan	124	37.fourscore
Number of family members	1	3	0.91
	two	thirty	9.15
	3	144	43.xc
	4	79	24.09
	5 and to a higher place	72	21.95
Household pork consumption per week	500 g and below	43	13.11
	500–ane 000 k	121	36.89
	ane 000–1 500 g	92	28.05
	1 500–ii 000 g	30	9.15
	Above 2 500 g	42	12.fourscore

Experimental Blueprint

Each traceable pork attribute shown in Table 1 has a different number of levels. Therefore, the Choice Experiment followed a total factorial design (Louviere et al., 2000). The traceable pork attributes and aspect levels in Table 1 resulted in 4 × 3 × 3 × iv = 144 virtual traceable pork profiles. By and large speaking, choice tasks that take more than 30 min will frazzle consumers (Allenby and Rossi, 1989); as such, profiles must be limited in order to eliminate pick fatigue in participants. At the same time, based on the principle of random design, the attributes and attribute levels of traceable pork were randomly combined to ensure balanced attribute level distribution while reducing choice fatigue. The Choice Experiment was designed every bit follows: Firstly, the 15 main effects of the four traceable pork attributes shown in Tabular array i to exist studied were identified. In add-on, 16 two-way interactions could exist obtained between the different levels of each information aspect, which, together with the above-mentioned fifteen effects, require a total of 31 degrees of freedoms. Secondly, ten unlike versions of questionnaires were developed, with 10 tasks in each version. Each task contained two traceable pork profiles and a no-choice option. Thus, participants needed to compare 20 traceable pork profiles, which did not exceed the maximum quantity of profiles to avoid choice fatigue and satisfy minimum requirements for degrees of freedom. The final Pick Experiment design is shown in Figure 3. At the stop of the experiment, each participant was asked demographic questions, such every bit gender, age, marital condition, and educational background, also as about weekly household consumption, to investigate the possible impact of such factors on consumption preferences.

Single job sample of pick experiment.⁴

Arrangement and Implementation

This experiment was conducted by trained postgraduates from a well-known local academy through direct 1-on-one interviews with participants. To ensure the randomness of the respondents, every third person coming into view was selected as the respondent (Wu et al., 2015b). It should be noted that if consumer surveys were to be carried out in a city where traceable food pilot projects have non been implemented, the investigator would need to explain relevant concepts in detail every bit consumers may be unfamiliar with the concept of traceable nutrient. This would non but increase the time toll of investigation, just also the dependence of the survey results on the concept explanation of the investigator, which may lead to biased research findings. Here, the survey was carried out in Wuxi, Jiangsu. Wuxi is one of the earliest pilot cities for a traceable pork organisation, and thus residents have a sure understanding of traceable pork. Moreover, its per capita GDP reached 174 600 yuan in 2018, one of the highest in China and indicating a high level of economical development. The experiment was carried out in all five administrative regions of Wuxi, including Liangxi, Binhu, Huishan, Xishan, and Xinwu, with 70 participants aged 18~65 recruited face-to-face in a large supermarket^v in each administrative region. The entire experiment was conducted during 18–21 October 2018, resulting in 328 valid questionnaires.

Demographics of Participants and Their Agreement of Animal Welfare in Grunter Production

Table 2 shows the demographics of the 328 participants recruited in the report. Among all participants, women accounted for 52.74% of total samples, which accords with the actual situation in China, i.eastward., more than women are responsible for food purchases in Chinese families. In total, 74.39% of participants were aged between xviii and 35 years, 56.ten% were single, and 54.27% had a bachelor's caste or above; 66.77 and 93.xc% of participants had no children under eighteen years old and no pregnant or breast-feeding women in their families, respectively; 85.06% of participants had a adept or very good health status; 53.96% of participants had an annual household income of more than 100 000 yuan; and 43.90, 24.09, and 21.95% of participants had three, 4, and five or above family members, respectively. In addition, 64.94% of participants had a household pork consumption of 500–1 500 g per week. However, it should exist noted that as the sample was limited to consumers in Wuxi, information technology may not be representative of all cities in China.

Table three shows the perceptions of the 328 participants regarding animal welfare in pork production. In full general, participants were basically satisfied with pork quality and safety in the current market. Specifically, 66.16% of participants expressed no cognition of animate being welfare. However, 43.60, 51.52, and 77.xiii% of participants considered "set up access to a satisfactory diet", "living in a well-ventilated hole that allows comfortable rest and activity", and "access to firsthand treatment when sick" to be very of import, respectively. Moreover, 53.35 and 77.74% of participants believed that it was completely necessary to safeguard pig welfare and that safeguarding hog welfare helped improve pork quality, respectively.

Table 3

Participants' perceptions of fauna welfare in pork production.

Detail	Category	Sample size (person)	Proportion
Satisfaction with current pork quality and safety (1 = full dissatisfaction, 10 = total satisfaction)	1	vii	2.13
	2	7	2.xiii
	3	24	7.32
	4	16	4.88
	5	69	21.04
	6	63	19.21
	7	67	20.43
	8	50	xv.24
	nine	12	3.66
	10	13	3.96
Knowledge of animal (e.g., pig) welfare	No noesis	217	66.xvi
	Depression noesis	76	23.17
	Medium knowledge	20	half-dozen.10
	High cognition	13	3.96
	Very high knowledge	two	0.61
Ready admission to a satisfactory diet	Very unimportant	four	ane.22
	Unimportant	two	0.61
	Neither of import nor unimportant	45	13.72
	More than important	134	40.85
	Very important	143	43.sixty
Living in a well-ventilated pigsty that allows comfortable rest and activity	Very unimportant	four	1.22
	Unimportant	two	0.61
	Neither of import nor unimportant	47	xiv.33
	More important	106	32.32
	Very important	169	51.52
Access to firsthand treatment when sick	Very unimportant	2	0.61
	Unimportant	ane	0.31
	Neither of import nor unimportant	21	6.twoscore
	More than important	51	15.55
	Very important	253	77.13
Whether or non it is necessary to safeguard the welfare of pigs and other animals	Completely unnecessary	v	i.53
	Unnecessary	12	iii.66
	Uncertain	17	5.eighteen
	Slightly necessary	119	36.28
	Completely necessary	175	53.35
Whether or not it helps improve pork quality and safety by safeguarding pig welfare	Unhelpful	6	ane.83
	Slightly helpful	37	11.28
	Uncertain	thirty	9.15
	Helpful	147	44.82
	Very helpful	108	32.92

Model Interpretation

Model Edifice

Co-ordinate to the Independence of Irrelevant Alternatives (IIA) hypothesis proposed by Luce (1959), U _imt is the utility obtained by participant i in situation t by selecting the m _th traceable pork profile from subset J of choice infinite C, and includes the deterministic term V _imt and stochastic term ε _imt , that is:

where β _i is the marginal utility vector of participant i, and X _imt is the aspect vector of the m _thursday traceable pork contour. The m _th traceable pork contour is called when U _imt > U _int is true for whatever n ≠ thousand. Therefore, the probability that participant i selects the m _th traceable pork profile in situation t can be expressed as follows:

P i m t = p r o b ( V i m t + ε i m t > V i north t + ε i n t ; ∀ due north ∈ C , north ≠ grand ) = p r o b ( ε i north t < ε i m t + Five i m t - V i northward t ; ∀ n ∈ C , n ≠ m )

(3)

If it is assumed that ε _imt follows a type I extreme value distribution, and so the model determined past (one) and (two) is known as the conditional logit model, so that the conditional probability in (three) can be converted into the following form (Train, 2003):

P i m t = exp ( β i ′ X i 1000 t ) ∑ n exp ( β i ′ X i n t )

(4)

In theory, each participant knows their own β _i and ε _imt , but they cannot be directly observed, so researchers tin can only give the unconditional probability by observing X _imt every bit follows:

P i m t = ∫ exp ( β ′ Ten i m t ) ∑ n exp ( β ′ Ten i due north t ) f ( β ) d ( β )

(5)

where f (β) is the probability density of β. Equation (v) is the general form of the logit model, which is known as the random parameters logit or mixed logit model. If it is causeless that participant preferences for traceable pork are homogeneous, that is, when β _i = b, f (β) = ane; and when β _i ≠ b, f (β) = 0, then Equation (5) tin can be converted into a fixed parameters logit model. As heterogeneous consumer preferences for traceable pork are more in line with reality, and the stock-still parameter logit model may not meet the IIA assumption, the random parameters logit model is commonly used to assess consumer preferences in the field of food safe.

Model Estimation

Based on the Pick Experiment, Y _i is the vector of the traceable pork profile chosen by participant i in different situations, that is, Y i ′ = ( Y i ane , Y i 2 , ⋯ , Y i T ). In this written report, participants had a total of 10 tasks, representing their choices in ten periods. Assuming that participants' preferences volition not alter in a curt period of time, the conditional probability of selecting Y _i is equally follows:

P ( Y i | X i , β i ) = ∏ t = one 10 exp ( β i ′ 10 i Y i t t ) ∑ j = 1 four exp ( β i ′ Ten i j t )

(half dozen)

The unconditional probability is the integral of all β values in Equation (vi), and can be specified as follows:

P ( Y i | 10 i ) = ∫ P ( Y i | X i , β ) f ( β ) d β

(7)

Equally Equation (7) is non-linear, maximum-likelihood estimation is a common estimation method. However, maximum-likelihood interpretation can only be used to judge the fixed parameters logit model, and whether its iteration is convergent is closely related to the setting of the initial value. More than importantly, it is hard to decide whether the result is globally or locally optimal (Train, 2003). Bayesian inference can be used to estimate group preferences. It provides better consistency and validity than maximum-likelihood estimation and does non require the calculation of an optimal solution, so that the related maximum-likelihood estimation defects tin be avoided (Train, 2003). Therefore, hierarchical Bayesian inference was adopted in this paper.

If β _i is the score vector of participant i, which is in line with random furnishings distribution, then expectation is the function of covariant ω _i , that is:

β i = Γ ′ ω i + ε i ε i ~ M 5 Due north ( 0 , Five β )

(viii)

where Γ is the regression coefficient matrix. If the covariant is not considered, namely, to make Γ = 0, and so β _i ~ MVN(0, 5 _β). In this newspaper, nosotros assumed that V _β follows the inverse Wishart distribution, that is:

Based on the Bayesian rule, the posterior distribution of β _i is expressed as:

h ( β i | Y i , X i , β ¯ , V β ) ∞ P ( Y i | 10 i , β i ) π ( β i )

(10)

where π(β _i ) is the prior distribution of β _i .

Iterative Process

Hierarchical Bayesian inference can be expressed in hierarchical class as:

where Equations (13) and (14) are the hyper-parameters of prior distribution. The iterative Markov chain process in Equations (eleven)–(14) is as follows: (1) For each participant, excerpt β after obtaining Y and Ten, and then repeat for all participants; (2) extract Γ subsequently obtaining β and 5 _β at the private level; (3) extract V _β after obtaining β and Γ; (4) repeat the above procedure.

Model Results and Analysis

Table 4 shows the consignment of the master variables. Hither, we used effect coding for the assignment of the level variables of the 4 attributes of traceable pork, i.eastward., traceability data, brute welfare, place of origin, and toll. We also assumed that the coefficients of the no-choice option, interaction terms, and price were stock-still, and the parameters of other attributes were stochastic and normally distributed (Ubilava and Foster, 2009). The parameter interpretation results of the model are shown in Tabular array 5.

Table 4

Variable assignment.

Variable	Variable assignment
HITRACE	HITRACE = ane; METRACE = 0; LOTRACE = 0
METRACE	HITRACE = 0; METRACE = 1; LOTRACE = 0
LOTRACE	HITRACE = 0; METRACE = 0; LOTRACE = one
NOTRACE	HITRACE = −ane; METRACE = −one; LOTRACE = −one
PHYSICAL	PHYSICAL = ane; ENVIR = 0; HEALTH = 0
ENVIR	PHYSICAL = 0; ENVIR = ane; HEALTH = 0
Wellness	Physical = 0; ENVIR = 0; HEALTH = 1
NOWELFARE	PHYSICAL = −one; ENVIR = −1; Wellness = −1
LOCORIGIN	LOCORIGIN = ane; OTHORIGIN = 0
OTHORIGIN	LOCORIGIN = 0; OTHORIGIN = 1
NOORIGIN	LOCORIGIN = −ane; OTHORIGIN = −1
PRICE1	PRICE1 = 1; PRICE2 = 0; PRICE3 = 0; PRICE4 = 0
PRICE2	PRICE1 = 0; PRICE2 = 1; PRICE3 = 0; PRICE4 = 0
PRICE3	PRICE1 = 0; PRICE2 = 0; PRICE3 = 1; PRICE4 = 0
PRICE4	PRICE1 = 0; PRICE2 = 0; PRICE3 = 0; PRICE4 = 1

Table 5

Hierarchical Bayesian iteration results.

Chief effect and interaction	Estimated coefficient	Standard error
PRICE1	0.1663	0.4437
PRICE2	0.3177	0.4412
PRICE3	0.2595	0.4486
PRICE4	−0.3518	0.4536
HITRACE	1.0323**	0.0821
METRACE	0.6193**	0.0718
LOTRACE	−0.0002	0.0662
PHYSICAL	0.4429**	0.0709
ENVIR	0.2496**	0.0656
HEALTH	0.7801**	0.0780
LOCORIGIN	0.7888**	0.0697
OTHORIGIN	0.3943**	0.0654
HITRACE × PHYSICAL	0.3549**	0.1165
HITRACE × ENVIR	−0.1069	0.1180
HITRACE × Wellness	−0.1878	0.1343
HITRACE × LOCORIGIN	0.1812	0.1021
HITRACE × OTHORIGIN	−0.0378	0.1018
METRACE × Concrete	−0.0917	0.1210
METRACE × ENVIR	0.0650	0.1170
METRACE × HEALTH	−0.0716	0.1349
METRACE × LOCORIGIN	0.0097	0.1022
METRACE × OTHORIGIN	−0.0538	0.1005
LOTRACE × PHYSICAL	−0.0076	0.1199
LOTRACE × ENVIR	0.1981	0.1268
LOTRACE × HEALTH	−0.1115	0.1425
LOTRACE × LOCORIGIN	−0.1228	0.1015
LOTRACE × OTHORIGIN	−0.0995	0.1028
Physical × LOCORIGIN	0.0300	0.1092
Physical × OTHORIGIN	−0.0011	0.0994
ENVIR × LOCORIGIN	0.0573	0.1056
ENVIR × OTHORIGIN	−0.3082**	0.1002
HEALTH × LOCORIGIN	−0.2313*	0.1179
Wellness × OTHORIGIN	0.3230**	0.1084
No-Pick Option	−1.6463**	0.4448
log likelihood	−2 763.1703
AIC	5 618.iii

** and * represent coefficients meaning at ane and 5% levels, respectively.

As seen in Table 5, the regression results showed that the no-choice selection was significant at the i% level and the estimated coefficient was negative. In addition, the estimated coefficients of HITRACE, METRACE, PHYSICAL, ENVIR, Health, LOCORIGIN, and OTHORIGIN were meaning at the i% level and were positive. As also shown in Tabular array v, HITRACE had the highest marginal utility (i.0323) amidst all traceable pork attributes, followed by LOCORIGIN (0.7888) and HEALTH (0.7801), which showed like marginal utility. In addition, the lodge for marginal utility of other attribute levels was METRACE, Concrete, OTHORIGIN, and ENVIR, i.e., 0.6193, 0.4429, 0.3943, and 0.2496, respectively. Therefore, the order of consumer preferences for traceable pork attributes was HITRACE, LOCORIGIN, Health, METRACE, Concrete, OTHORIGIN, and ENVIR.

The regression results of the price variable in Table 5 bear witness that the estimated coefficients of all 4 price levels were positive just non-significant. This may exist because the prepare price attributes had a relatively small-scale outcome on the marginal utility of traceable pork consumption compared with traceability information, animate being welfare, and place of origin in the context of the iv attributes and attribute levels set in the paper. Moreover, the marginal utilities of the iv price levels reveal that the coefficients of the price attribute were not monotone. The marginal utility of the toll attribute was non highest when the price was lowest (PRICE1 = 14 yuan/500 g), merely was highest at 15.iv yuan/500 grand. However, when the price was higher than 15.iv yuan/500 g, marginal utility decreased with the increase in price, consistent with the Law of Demand in classical economics, that is, consumer need decreases with the increase in article prices. The marginal utility not beingness highest when the price of traceable pork was lowest is probably because participants paid more attention to pork quality and safety. Improve pork quality and safety can exist safeguarded past a higher level of traceability information, which means a higher price. Comparatively speaking, it is hard to safeguard the quality and prophylactic of traceable pork at the lowest toll, and thus its marginal utility was lower than that at xv.4 yuan/500 g. By further calculating the deviation between the maximum and minimum marginal utility of each attribute of traceable pork divided by the sum of the corresponding differences of all attributes, we obtained the relative importance of each traceable pork aspect (Xu et al., 2019): i.e., traceability information, 39.thirty%; price, 25.49%; beast welfare, 20.19%; and place of origin, fifteen.02%.

In terms of interactions, the interactions HITRACE × PHYSICAL and Health × OTHORIGIN were significant at the level of 1%, with positive coefficients. Thus, a complementary relationship existed between HITRACE and PHYSICAL and betwixt Wellness and OTHORIGIN. When the label only shows dietary welfare of pigs, that is, data on food and drinking water in the farming process, the add-on of high-level traceability information that covers farming, slaughter and processing, and distribution and sales as a supplement tin reduce consumer concerns about the gamble of pork. Thus, at that place is a complementary relationship between HITRACE and PHYSICAL. When the label shows that traceable pork is not-indigenous, pigs cannot exist guaranteed treatment when they are sick in the farming process, so the wellness welfare label is as well required to ensure the safety of such pork. Thus, there is also a complementary relationship betwixt Wellness and OTHORIGIN. In dissimilarity, the Wellness × LOCORIGIN interaction was significant at the 5% level, with a negative coefficient. This suggests that the ethnic characterization guarantees admission to medical treatment, which is the information contained in the health welfare label, resulting in a stiff relationship between Wellness and LOCORIGIN. Lastly, the ENVIR × OTHORIGIN interaction was significant at the one% level, with a negative coefficient, indicating that a substitutional relationship exists betwixt ENVIR and OTHORIGIN. The ex dues risk assessment carried out past participants on traceable pork based on the non-indigenous label already covered information nearly the habitat environment of pigs in the farming process, so OTHORIGIN can substitute ENVIR.

Main Conclusions and Prospects

In this written report, consumer preferences for traceable pork attributes, including traceability data, brute welfare, place of origin, and cost, at different levels, were examined in 328 consumers in downtown Wuxi, Jiangsu Province, Red china, using a Choice Experiment and Bayesian inference. The main conclusions are as follows:

Firstly, when asked direct, 77.74% of participants claimed that safeguarding hog welfare was helpful or very helpful for improving pork quality and safety. The Choice Experiment results also showed that although the marginal utility of health welfare was lower than that of high-level traceability information, it was similar to that of place of origin, and higher than that of middle-level traceability information and other attribute levels. Consumer preference for wellness welfare was lower than that for traceability data. This may be due to their perceptions of higher traceability data than of health welfare as perception determines behavior. The calculation results showed that the relative importance of animate being welfare to consumers was higher than that of place of origin among traceable pork attributes with the office of ex ante quality assurance. Therefore, including the animal welfare aspect in the form of a characterization may meliorate meet consumer demand for pork safe and quality information than including the place of origin attribute. This determination accords with that of Yuta et al. (2018), i.e., most consumers prefer to purchase creature-derived food with an fauna welfare label. This is because the fauna welfare label provides more than data than the place of origin label. For example, the health welfare attribute reflects information on disease treatment in the farming process of pigs, which is more than helpful for consumers to determine pork quality and safety.

Secondly, we found a complementary relationship between high-level traceability information and dietary welfare. This finding suggests that the risk of pork with an animal welfare label simply is still uncontrollable, and traceability information that covers farming, slaughter and processing, and distribution and sales should be included as a supplement. Therefore, to ensure the office of the animal welfare label, a label system that combines the traceability information aspect, which enables ex postal service traceability, and the animal welfare aspect, which enables ex ante quality assurance, may better meet market demand. This determination is consistent with that of Wu et al. (2015b). This is because consummate traceability information covering farming, slaughter and processing, and distribution and sales ensures that sub-standard food can be finer recalled, thereby safeguarding pork safety and quality. Thirdly, although the importance of the animal welfare data attribute was lower than that of the price attribute, the marginal utilities of health welfare and dietary welfare were higher than those of all price levels. This indicates that consumers accept a higher toll equally a event of increased production costs due to the inclusion of animal welfare information. This is mainly because consumers are highly concerned about food condom. This conclusion accords with that of previous studies in other countries. For example, Yuta et al. (2018) reported that about ninety% of Japanese consumers are willing to pay a certain premium for beef with an brute welfare characterization. Espana et al. (2018) found that American consumers are willing to pay a premium of 0.79 US dollars (32%) for eggs with animate being welfare information. Thus, consumer demand already exists for the setting of an creature welfare attribute for traceable brute-derived nutrient in the context that consumers are highly concerned about the safe of animal-derived nutrient in China. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, China has recently approved the integration of an animal welfare aspect into traceability market place systems of new animal-derived foods. The authorities should encourage manufacturers to produce diverse traceable animal-derived food non only to protect animal welfare and promote the construction of an ecological civilization, merely besides to develop new animal-derived food markets to satisfy different levels of consumer demand.

There are some study limitations to mention. The electric current experiment was a hypothetical experiment, which did non include actual payment by consumers. Given the characteristics of stated preference, consumers tend to exaggerate or falsely limited their consumption beliefs, which may differ from their behavior under a real market environment. Therefore, non-hypothetical experiments should exist used in futurity studies. In addition, every bit the sample was limited to consumers in Wuxi, Jiangsu Province, farther enquiry with a wider scope is required to ostend the universality of our findings.

Information Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the respective author.

Ethics Argument

The studies involving human being participants were reviewed and approved by Jiangnan Academy. The patients/participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

Author Contributions

LW: conceptualization and validation. EH: information curation and writing—review and editing. LK: formal analysis. MC: writing—original draft.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of whatever commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

^oneProtection of Food Safety! Top X Food Crime Cases in the Commencement Half Uncovered by Zhejiang Provincial Public Security Section, source: China.com.cn (http://zjnews.china.com.cn/yuanchuan/2019-07-03/178907.html).

²In China, many nutrient safety and quality incidents are acquired past dishonest acts of nutrient producers and operators, e.thou., nutrient fraud and adulteration. Therefore, the integrity of food producers and operators in a region straight affects consumer expectations of food condom in that region. The term "place of origin" here not only indicates a geological range, but also covers consumer assessment of the integrity of food producers and operators in that region.

³"Place of origin" included in the traceable information system in this written report refers only to the location of pig farming.

⁴The investigator prepared three samples of pure lean pork with "fresh, moderate, and unattractive" appearance past adding nutrient coloring and showed them to the participants during the experiment for comparing.

⁵The selected supermarkets were Carrefour in Liangxi, Auchan in Binhu, Tesco in Huishan, RT-Mart in Xishan, and Hualian in Xinwu. All have a business organisation area larger than 3 000 yardⁱⁱ and boilerplate annual menstruum of 1.v to two customers/m².

Funding. 2019 Fundamental Research Project Sponsored by National Social Science: Research on the Scientific Connotation and the Design of Food Safety System Framework (19AGL021). Major Projection Sponsored by the National Social Science Fund of China: Research on Social Co-governance of Food Safety Risks and Cross-edge Cooperative Governance Mechanisms (xx&ZD117).

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